A new comedy, or “comedy of morality”, in which the most famous in the IV century.

The plot of “Laokoon” is taken from the legends of the Trojan War. The Trojan priest Laocoon was punished by the gods for persuading his fellow citizens not to trust the Greeks and not to bring a wooden horse into the city. For this, the gods sent giant snakes on him, which strangled Laocoon and his sons. The sculpture depicts the desperate and futile efforts of the heroes to free themselves from the clutches of monsters that crushed the bodies of three victims. The futility of the struggle, the inevitability of death are obvious.

Among the artists of that time, the students of the famous sculptor Lysippus became famous. For example, Hares of Linda built a giant bronze sculpture of the god Helios (Sun) on the island of Rhodes in honor of the heroic defense of the city of Rhodes – the famous Colossus of Rhodes, which became one of the seven wonders of the world.

The statue of Colossus of Rhodes was 30 m high. At first, Hares built an iron frame and covered it with clay. Then the figure was covered with a bronze sheet. The statue took 12 tons of bronze. To make it more stable, the statue was filled with stones. Colossus of Rhodes stood only 66 years. In 224 BC. it was destroyed during a strong earthquake.

Hellenistic sculptures continue the traditions of Scopos and Praxiteles, but their works are marked by a greater degree of individualization of images. Masterpieces of Hellenistic sculpture are Aphrodite (Venus) Miloszko, statues of Greek philosophers, the most notable of which is the portrait of Demosthenes by Palievkt (III century BC).

Along with the pathetic sculpture in the Hellenistic period there is a naturalistic trend in sculpture. The most striking examples of this type of sculpture are “Drunk Old Woman” by Myron of Thebes, “Fisherman”, “Aphrodite and Mr.” by unknown authors. Sculptors no longer neglect such categories as old age, physical injuries, poverty, which were avoided by classical art, focused on the search for pattern and ideal forms.

Hellenistic literature, in contrast to the literature of classical Greece, is deprived of socio-political themes. Her plots are quite simple, limited by the domestic interests of certain social groups. Therefore, many classical works have lost their artistic and social significance. Hymns, epigrams, epics, and idylls become the favorite genres of the nobility. At the same time, the interests of the general population were expressed in comedy and mime. A new comedy, or “comedy of morality”, in which the most famous in the IV century. B.C. was Menander, glorified the private lives of citizens.

Glyptics (stone carving) is highly developed. The image could be embossed (cameo) or cut deep (intaglio). Thanks to the skill of carvers it was possible to create real masterpieces. One of them is the cameo of Gonzaga, on which are carved portraits of King Ptolemy of Philadelphia and his wife Arsina. The material was a semiprecious stone sardonyx. Now this masterpiece is stored in the St. Petersburg Hermitage.

An important factor in the development of culture was the spread of the Greek system of education and lifestyle. The importance of science, especially technical, in practical life has increased. Evidence of this was the creation of centers of scientific knowledge: libraries in Pergamum, Alexandria, Antioch and other cities, Museion – the temple of sciences in Alexandria.

The largest library in the Hellenistic world was considered to be Alexandria, which was part of the Museum. It numbered about 700 thousand scrolls. Created by Ptolemy I, the Alexandria Museum became a real scientific center with an anatomical theater, observatories, zoos, botanical gardens, places for work and recreation of scientists, living rooms and a dining room. Scientists were kept by the state. The material base of scientific research also grew due to patronage, which was considered very prestigious. The great importance of science in the Hellenistic world is evidenced by the fact that at the court of each king there were museums and libraries, and scientists created the conditions for work.

The classification of scientific knowledge has led to the progress of science in general. Mathematics, medicine, geography, anatomy, botany, etc. were especially developed. Euclid’s work “Elements” (“Beginnings”) became a synthesis of mathematical knowledge of antiquity. The name of Archimedes of Syracuse is associated with the creation of scientific mechanics and one of the laws of hydrostatistics; Eighteen centuries before Copernicus, Aristarchus of Samos proved that the Earth revolves around the Sun; Strabo in his literacy narrative topics treatise “Geography” in 17 books described the world known at that time – from Britain to India; Theophrastus created the “History of Plants”; Herophilus discovered the existence of nerves in humans, hypothesized that mental activity is related to the brain, and suggested the existence of blood circulation. During the Hellenistic period, philology emerged as a science in the form of philological criticism, restoration and commentary on original texts, classical works, beginning with Homer.

In the philosophy of the Hellenistic period, the Greek tradition prevailed, the process of emergence of new schools continued. Of particular importance were the teachings of the Stoics, Cynics and the philosophy of Epicurus (341 – 270 gg. BC). The philosophical schools that emerged and developed during the Hellenistic period were characterized by the recognition of the slave’s human dignity, higher moral qualities and wisdom. They served as one of the sources of the formation of the ideology of Christianity.

During the Hellenistic period, the religious beliefs of the Greeks changed. Religious beliefs traditional for ancient Greece, combined with Eastern traditions, gave rise to new forms of religion, spread the identification of the gods of the Greek pantheon with the ancient Eastern deities. Some cults the Greeks learned almost unchanged, only renamed Isis to Demeter, and Cybele to Aphrodite or Artemis. A prominent place in the culture of Hellenism belongs to the cult of Zeus the Gypsist (the highest), which is identical with the Phoenician Baal, the Egyptian Amun, the Jewish Yahweh and many others. The tendency to universalize religious beliefs is becoming a prologue to future monotheism.

In general, Hellenistic culture differed from classical Greek. It was a cosmopolitan culture created by the “citizen of the world”, not the Greek polis. It has become not only the embodiment of the uniqueness of the Greek spirit, but also the assimilation of the best achievements of the cultural diversity of the united world.

In addition, it was a culture of a stratified society: more than ever, it was created by the culture of the intellectual elite, meeting the needs of the new slave-owning nobility. Hellenistic culture reflected the main problems of the transition period – it is the ancient polis collectivity to individualism, born of the slave-owning monarchy. The refined multidimensional culture of Hellenism was the final stage in the development of the culture of ancient Greece. The traditional principles of Greek society were exhausted. A new cultural force entered the historical arena – Rome, which at the end of the first century. B.C. established his dominance in the Hellenistic world.

11/19/2010

The state and features of the Ukrainian language of the XIII – XVI centuries.

The variety of Ukrainian dialects restrained writers in using the vernacular as a literary language. That’s why they tried to find the book language that would be understandable to everyone. However, their choice often focused on Latin, Polish, or, at best, Slavic.

Feudal fragmentation and the Tatar-Mongol invasion dealt a devastating blow to the culture and life of ancient Ukrainians. Cities were severely destroyed and libraries and documents burned. Lists of works of literature of Kievan Rus survived mainly in the Novgorod and Pskov lands, which were not completely defeated.

The lands of Kyiv, Chernihiv, and Pereyaslav were most devastated. But, despite the cruel times, cultural life in the conquered lands does not stop. Written monuments of this period: “Galician-Volyn chronicle”, “A word about the destruction of the n land”, “Kiev-Pechersk Paterik”. The language of the works of this period is characterized by imagery, solemnity of style, on-. native poetic expressions, aphorisms.

Weakened southern and western lands in the XIV century. fall into a new dependence: Kyiv, Chernihiv-Sivershchyna, Pereyaslavshchyna (Poltava), Podillya, Volyn until the sixteenth century. are under the rule of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania; Galicia from 1387 BC – near Poland, Transcarpathia – from the XIV century. is part of Hungary, and Bukovina – to the Principality of Moldavia. The level of culture of the conquering state was lower than in the lands conquered by it. Therefore, despite the great military power, the Lithuanian principality could not do without the Russian language, which was recognized as the state language. This is evidenced by the monuments of business writing, diplomas of the XIV – XVI centuries, “Sudebnyk” by Kazimir Jagail in 1468, “Lithuanian Statute” in 1566, 1588 pp.

Here is what is written in the “Lithuanian Statute” about the language: “And the Zemstvo clerk has in Russian letters and words in Russian all letters, extracts and claims to write, and not in another language and words” 1.

The handwritten copy of the Lithuanian Statute contains a poem by Jan Kazimir Pashkevych about the Russian language:

Poland will flourish in Latin, Lithuania will flourish in Russian, Without that you will not wake up in Poland, Without this one you will be a clown in Lithuania.

Secular and religious books in the Lithuanian state were also written in Russian: “Lithuanian Chronicle”, “Lucidarius”, “Chetya-Mineya”.

Union of Lublin 1569 p. proclaimed the formation of one federal state (Polish-Lithuanian) – the Commonwealth. During this period, many Polonisms and Germanisms borrowed through the Polish language appeared in the language of Ukrainian letters: marshal, chancellor, chinsch, goldavanie (meaning “oath”), etc., as well as Latinisms: maistat, privilege, etc. However, the number of lexical borrowings was insignificant. The basis of terminological vocabulary consisted of ancient Russian words inherited from the business writing of Kievan Rus. The influence of the Polish language on morphology and phonetics was also insignificant, as there was a parallel use of both Polish and Ukrainian forms: king – krul, volost – vlost, voluntary – voluntary, and others. The syntax remained the most stable, preserved it the order of words of the living Ukrainian vernacular and the monuments of Kievan Rus.

Thus, the Polish language, which from the XIV – XV centuries. used Latin, and the language of office work was exclusively Latin, could not significantly affect the language of Ukrainian monuments, as it may seem at first glance.

Moldavian literature felt the influence of the old Ukrainian act language, because the Moldavian masters had clerks (chancellors) of Ukrainian origin from among the Bukovinians.